benefit形容词范文精选

benefit形容词篇1

典例:China Chinese;apan apanese。

巧记2:有些地名变成形容词,后边加ian才能行。

妙解:有些地名变形容词时在后边加ian即可。

典例:Italy Italian,Egypt Egyptian

巧记:以a结尾的词表地名,后加n可变成形容词。

典例:Asia Asian;Africa African;America American,Austria Austrian

巧记4:有些地名,后加ish可变成形容词。

典例:Britain British,England English,但是Wales Welsh(威尔士的)是例外。

巧记5:ful前加名词,就能构成形容词。

妙解:名词后加ful即可变成形容词,表示“具有某特点的”“充满……的”。

典例:use useful,care careful,help helpful,joy joyful,但handful和mouthful为量词。

巧记6:表称呼的词,后加ly构成形容词;表示时间的各名词,后加ly构成形容词。

典例:father fatherly,mother motherly

但也有特殊的,如:love lovely;like likely;order orderly;dead deadly;live lively。

巧记7:某些物质名词后加en可以变成形容词。

典例:wood wooden;gold golden

巧记8:某些名词后加上ous可以变成形容词。

典例:fame famous;poison poisonous

巧记9:表示天气的各个名词和其它一些名词后加y可以变成形容词。

典例:wind windy,cloud cloudy

其它名词,如:dirt dirty,hunger hungry,anger angry,thirst thirsty

巧记10: ture结尾的各名词,去e加al变成形容词。

典例:agriculture agricultural;culture cultural

巧记11:学科名词以及其它一些名词加cal可以变成形容词。

典例:chemistry chemical,physics physical,politics political,ecology ecological

巧记12: less前边放名词,也可变成形容词。

典例:home homeless,fear fearless

特别注意:price priceless无价的,价值大的。[H02mm]

巧记1:ence结尾的某些名词,变成ent时就成了形容词。

典例:competence competent,silence silent,evidence evident,excellence excellent,innocence innocent

巧记14:ance结尾的某些名词,变成ant时就成了形容词。

典例:importance important;significance significant;ignorance ignorant;tolerance tolerant

巧记15:ency结尾的某些名词,变成ent时就成了形容词。

典例:fluency fluenturgency urgent

巧记16:某些以t或n结尾的名词,加al可以变成形容词。

典例:nation national,season seasonal,tradition traditional,condition conditional

巧记17:某些以t结尾的名词,加y可以变成形容词。

典例:honest honesty,modest modesty

巧记18:某些以lity结尾的名词,去ity可以变成形容词。

典例:reality real,possible possibility,ability able,responsibility responsible,但electric electricity除外

巧记19:某些以rity结尾的名词,去ity可以变成形容词。

典例:minority minor,majority major,similarity similar,priority prior

巧记20:某些以ce结尾的名词,把ce变成cial就成了形容词。

典例:race racial,face facial,commerce commercial,finance financial,但benefit beneficial除外

benefit形容词篇2

一、形容词和副词的基本用法

1.形容词在句中一般作定语、表语、补语。形容词用逗号与句子隔开,在句中作状语。

【考例1】As_______(nature) architects, thePueblo Indians figured out exactly…(2015年全国卷II)

解析:natural。形容词作定语修饰名词architects。

【考例2】Hans Zhang was____(自豪的)of himself for not giving up. (2015年陕西卷)

解析:proud。be proud of“对……引以为豪”。形容词proud作was的表语。

【考例3】____(shock), I took it fromher automatically. She smiled and walked away.(2015年上海卷).

解析:Shocked。过去分词shocked用作形容词,在句中作状语。

2.副词在句中主要作状语,修饰谓语动词或系表结构。

【考例1】Abercrombie&Kent,a travel com-pany in Hong Kong, says it____(regular)arranges quick getawavs here for people…(2015年全国卷I)

解析:regularly。修饰动词arranges应用副词regularly。

【考例2】改错:How nice to see you again!Dad and l were terrible worried.(2015年全国II卷)

解析:terrible改为terribly。应用副词terri-bly修饰系表结构were worried。

【考例3】____ (lucky), he also had a cow which produced milk every day. (2015年广东卷)

解析:Luckilyoluckily为副词,意为“幸运的是”。luckily在句中作状语,放在句首修饰整个句子。

【考例4】Walls made of adobe take in the heat from the sun on hot days and give out that heat____(slow) during cool nights, thuswarming the house. (2015年全国II卷)

解析:slowlyo用slow的副词形式slowly修饰动词短语give out。

二、形容词和副词的比较等级

1.平级比较

常用as_as, not as/so…as,as+形容词+as。注意区分下列固定结构:as long as“与……一样长”;as far as“与……一样远,就……而言”;as well as“与……一样好,既……又……”。

【考例】完成句子

没有哪项技术的发展像电子技术这样,对我们的社会、经济以及文化等诸多方面产生过如此重要的影响。

No other technological development has had_________as the growth of electronics on so many aspects of social, economic, and cultural de-velopment. (impact)(2014年湖北卷)

解析:as great an impact/such a great im-pact。本题考查as_as结构引导的同级比较。注意as…as结构中间的名词应该置于形容词之后。

2.比较级

【考例l】While finding information is easierthan ever, at the same time, researching has be-come____complex.(2015年湖南卷)

解析:more。根据上文中的“Research has become both simpler and more complex.”可知,本空填more。

【考例2】The result is what amounts to a huge outdoor vending machine. Yet I think the term“automatic shop”is far_______(appro-priate).(2014年上海卷)

解析:more appropriate。自动售货机英语为huge outdoor vending machine,但是作者认为用术语“automatic shop”相比之下应是“较合适”,即用比较级形式。由于appropriate为多音节形容词,故前面加more。

【注1】用“the+比较级,the+比较级”表示“越……,越……”。

【考例】The____(hard) you try to beat him, the more likely you will get hit. He controls you! (2014年辽宁卷)

解析:harder。本题考查“the+比较级,the+比较级”结构。

【注2】“否定词十比较级”表达最高级。

【考例】翻译:没有什么比获准参加太空旅行项目更令人兴奋的了。(than)(2014年上海卷)

___________________________________________

___________________________________________

解析:There is nothing more exciting than being allowed to take part in the space travel pro-gram.

3.最高级

【考例1)It was____(nice) gift I’d ev-er received, and it was from a complete stranger.(2015年上海卷)

解析:the nicest。形容词最高级修饰的名词,其后常接含有完成时的定语从句。

【考例2】改错:My mum makes the betterbiscuits in the world…(2015年陕西卷)

解析:better改成best。名词biscuits后用in the world修饰,其前需要用最高级best修饰,故把better改成best。

【考例3】完成句子

这部小说曾经是美国高中阅读最广泛的书。

This novel was once the____book in high schools in the United States. (read) (2014年湖北卷)

解析:most widely read。“阅读最广泛的书”,可译为the most widely read book。

三、倍数表达法

1.倍数+as+形容词/副词的原级+as…

2.倍数+形容词/副词的比较级+than…

3.倍数+the+名词(如size, height, weight,length, width等)+of…

4.倍数+as+形容词+ al an+名词+as…

5.倍数+as many(或much)+名词+as…

6.倍数+ what从句/that of…

【考例l】It’s said that the power plant is now________large as what it was. (2013年安徽卷)

A.twice as

B.as twice

C. twice much

D.much twice

解析:A。根据空格后面的as判断,形容词large前面必须加as,倍数twice放在第一个as的前面。

【考例2】There are a small number of people involved, possibly_______twenty. (2013年江西卷)

A. as few as

B.as Iittle as

C.as many as

D.as much as

解析:A。题中people是可数名词,常用few或many修饰。

四、形容词和副词的顺序

1.多个形容词修饰名词的排列顺序是考试常考的内容,大家应该记住下列口诀:限定描绘大长高,形状年龄和新老,颜色国籍出材料,作用类别往后靠。

【考例】It’s a____clock,made of brass and dating from the nineteenth century.(2013年上海卷)

A. charming French small

B. French small charming

C. small French charming

D. charming small French

解析:D。选项中的charming属于描绘性的,small是大小,French是国籍。

2.副词修饰形容词的特殊词序:so/as/how/that/too+形容词+a(an)+单数可数名词。

【考例】I make $2,000 a week,60 surely won’t make____difference to me.

A.that a big

B.a that big

C.big a that

D.that big a

解析:D。副词that表示“那么……”修饰形容词big,相当于s0及how的用法,即that(so/how) biga difference。

五、连接副词

副词起连接作用,使前后句构成某种逻辑上的衔接。常见的连接副词有therefore, be-sides, otherwise, however, moreover, thus, mean-while等。

【考例1】Many of us were raised with the saying“Waste not, want not.” None of us,_________,can completely avoid waste in our lives. (2014年福建卷)

解析:however。根据句意可知上下文之间是转折关系,所以使用副词however表示转折,前后都需要使用逗号隔开。

【考例2】It’s our hope that we will play a greater role in the market place and,____,supply more jobs. (2014年安徽卷)

A.however

B.anywhere

C. therefore D.otherwise

解析:C。本题中“we will play a greater role in the market place”与“supply more jobs”之间是因果关系,故选C。

六、表语形容词

active, afraid, alone, alive, alike, asleep, ashamed, awake, afloat, available, well. sorry, un-able, worth, sure等表语形容词并非只能作表语,也可作补足语或后置定语。possible, impos-sible, probable, necessary, convenient, inconve-nient等作表语时,常用it作主语,而不用“人”作主语。likely既可用it作主语,也可用“人”作主语。

【考例1】-Can you lend me the book Gone with the Wind?

-Sorry. I returned it to the library just now.Maybe it is still____.

A. available

B.affordable

C. acceptable

D.valuable

解析:A。根据下半句中的still可知用avail-able,而affordable“支付的起的”;acceptable“可接受的”;valuable“贵重的”均不符合题意。

【考例2】Would it be__________for you to pick me up at four o’clock and take me to the air-port?

A.free

B.vacant

C.handy

D.convenient

解析:Do it是形式主语,真正的主语是后面的不定式。根据句意可知选convenient意为“方便的”。

七、形容词、副词词义辨析

1.掌握形容词、副词的基本意义或固定搭配。

【考例1】Listening is thus an active, not a________, behavior consisting of hearing, under-standing and remembering. (2015年浙江卷)

A. considerate

B.sensitive

C.reliable

D.passive

解析:Do considerate“考虑周全的”;sensi-tive“敏感的”;reliable“可靠的”;passive“被动的”。根据not可知前后是反义表达,所以选D。

【考例2】The police officers decided to con-cluct a Lhorough and____review of thecase. (2015年江苏卷)

A. comprehensive

plicated

C. conscious

D.crucial

解析:A。comprehensive“综合的,全面的,有理解力的”;complicated“复杂的”;conscious“有意识的”;crucial“至关重要的”。根据题意可知选A。

【考例3lThe girl used to be shy, but is_______getting active in group work and is more willing to express herself.(2015年湖北卷)

A.gradually

B.usually

C.previously

D.merely

解析:Ao gradually“逐渐地”;usually“通常,经常”;previously“以前”;merely“仅仅”。根据题意可知选A。

【考例4】They gave money to the old people’shome either____or through their compa-nies. (2015年安徽卷)

A.legally

B.sincerely

C. personally

D.deliberately

解析:Colegally“合法地”;sincerely“真诚地”;personally“个人而言”;deliberately“故意地”。根据题意可知选C。

2.掌握一些特殊的形容词、副词用法。如修饰population用large/small,修饰price用high/low,下大雨用It rained heavily或a heavy rain;连词though, since,in case也可用作副词。

【考例l】The school was moved out of down-town as the number of students had grown too______________________________.

A.small

B.few

C.large

D.many

解析:Cothe number of“……的数量”,其后的形容词应为“大小”(large/small),不用“多少”(many/few)。

【考例2】Playing on a frozen sports field sounds like a lot of fun. Isn’t it rather risky,_______?

A. though

B.also C.either

D.too

解析:A。前后两句之间是转折关系。

八、强化训练

(一)改错。找出下列句子中的错误并改正。

1. Global warming has already become a very seriously problem.

2. He liked it so very much that he quickly walked into the shop.

3.I thought the biscuits were really well.

4. On the left-hand side of the class,I coulcl easy see the football field.

5. So really friendship should he able to stand all sorts of tests.

6. Nearly five years before, and with the help of our father, my sister and I planted some cherrv tomatoes(圣女果)in our back garden.

7. As a result, the plants are growing some-where.

8. The fruits are small in size, but juicy and taste.

9. We are growing wonderfully tomatoes at no cost!

10. Don’t panic or get out of line, ancl try to remain quiet and calmly.

11. The teachers here are kind and helpfully.They are not only our teachers but also our friends.

12. Just then a bird was flying over us. My un-cles immediate jumped up and shot their arrows at the bird.

13. That is too much for us, considering how closely the houses are.

14. No one in the carriage had previous spo-ken to or even noticed the ticket-owner before.

15. I was taking a train to London’s Victoria Station. I noticed that the carriage was noise and filled with people.

(二)完成句子 o在空白处填入适当的内容

1. Hardly had Sabrina finished her words when Albert said_____(sharp), “Don’t be somean, pointing a finger of warning at her.

2. After knocking_______(polite) at the door, the applicant entered the office of the gener-al manager.

3. It’s much more________(benefit) to saysomething like,”I think we had…”

4. Team members want and think(high) of these qualities in a group leader.

5. It’s lightweight, it’s flexible, and-________important-it holds its shape.

6. Although it costs more to produce________a typical soccer ball, Jahnigen estimates the One World Football can last 30 years. So far, it’s been given to kids in 143 countries.

7.“That would be a very________(reason)thing to do in a big city, but it could destroy a small village like outs,”Nick said.

8.“But such a small thing couldn’t________(possible) destroy a village.”

9. I like it. Nothing could be________(sweet).

10. A note is often a________way to“talk”with a child than using the telephone.

11. Finally, that hard work paid off and now the water in the river is________(clean) than ev-er.

12. I cannot control my body well. My legs become________(pain)

13. It was________(bravery) of Mary to quit her job and start her own business.

14. Raymond’s parents wanted him to have________(good)possible education.

15. What was so________(impression)about Jasmine Westland' s victory was that she came first in the marathon bare-footed.

(三)短文填空。阅读下面材料,在空白处填人适当的内容 (1个单词 )或括号内单词的正确形式。

A

Habits, whether good or bad, are gradually formed. When a person does l certain thing again, he is driven by an unseen force to do the same thing 2 (repeat); then a habit is formed. Once a habit is formed , it is difficult. and sometimes 3 (possible) to get rid of. It is therefore very 4 (importance) that we should pay great attention to the formation of the habits.

Children 5 form bad habits, some of which remain with them 6 long as they live. Laziness, lying, stealing and so on are all easily formed bad habits. However, there are many7 habits formed in early life that are of great help. Many 8 (success) men say much of their success has something to do with certain 9 (habit)in early life like early ris-ing and honesty. We should keep 10 from all the bad habits and try to form such goocl habits as will be good for ourselves and others.

B

This morning, my neighbor called me and asked me l (anxious): “Are your dogsmissing? ”

I was filled with 2 (nervous) and im- mediately made a phone call to my wife, and then I replied with relief, “No. They 3 (stay) at home.”My neighbor is a sweet, kind and gener- ous girl with 4 0ld- fashioned heart and spirit. She bakes cookies and shares them with neighbors. rroday she found two small dogs walk-ing down the street, so she brought them home.

I then suggested places 5 she could report the missing dogs.“Most people wouldn’t do anything about them,”I said,“Many cars and peo-ple passed by them this morning, ignoring them.You did the 6 (rightly)thing.”

1 went outside to look for someone who mightbe walking 7 the street, and I expected tohear the distant cry of someone calling the dogs”names. 8 no one did this.

If l were lost,1 would hope someone would come looking for me. If l were crying alone,I9 hope that someone would stop and wipe away my tears. Why 10 9ive a little love to dogs and other creatures?

参考答案与解析:

(一)改错

1. seriously改成seriousoa verv serious prob-lem“一个很严重的问题”,修饰名词应用形容词serious。

2.去掉very。他如此喜欢它以致于他快速地走进商店。so…that…“如此……以致于……”。

3.well改成good。作表语用形容词,故well改成good。

4.easy改成easily。修饰动词see,应用副词easily。

5.reallly改成real。用形容词作前置定语,修饰名词friendship。

6 before改成agooago表示“从现在起的若干时间以前”意为“距今……以前”,需和过去时或过去进行时连用;before泛指“从过去起的若干时间以前”,意思是“距过去某时……以前”,常和完成时连用,这里谓语动词planted用的是过去式,故用ago。

7.somewhere改成everywhere。根据句意可知把somewhere(某地)改成everywhere(到处)。

8.taste改成tasty。放在are后面,应该用形容词。and是并列连词,连接前后两个形容词。

9.wonderfully改成wonderful;tomatoes是名词,应该用形容词修饰,副词常常修饰动词。

10. calmlv改成calm。remaln为系动词,后接形容词作表语。

11. helpfully改成helpful。考查形容词与副词。and并列的是两个形容词作are的表语。

12. immediate改成immediately。修饰动词jumped,应用副词immediately。

13. closely改成close。本句“how close thehouses are”中的close本应该是在系动词are的后面,构成系表结构are close。closely是一个副词,副词通常不能和系动词连用构成系表结构。

14.previous改成previously。本句中应该使用副词previously作状语,修饰谓语动词。形容词previous通常作为定语或者表语,不能作状语。

15. noise改成noisy。本句中应该使用形容词noisy和系动词was构成系表结构,修饰车里当时的情况。同时noisy与后面的形容词短语filled with构成并列关系。

(二)完成句子

1.sharply。根据句子结构可知应用sharp的副词形式sharply意为“严厉地,毫不客气地”。

2.politely。副词politely“礼貌地”,修饰动词knock。

3.beneficial。根据句意和句子结构可知,本空应填benefit的形容词形式beneficial。

4.highly。think highly of意为“高度赞扬”。

5.most。most important意为“最为重要的”。

6.than。前面有more,故填than。

7.reasonable。应用形容词修饰名词thing。

8.possibly。应用副词修饰谓语动词de-stroy。

9.sweeter。否定词nothing后加比较级sweeter表达肯定的最高级。

10. better。根据后面的than可知,空格处应填比较级。根据空格前冠词a判断,应填以辅音开头的形容词。根据句子的前后意思及逻辑关系,填good的比较级符合题意。

11. cleaner。根据后面的比较连词than可知,这里应该用比较级,故填cleaner。

12.painful。此处为形容词作表语构成系表结构。

13. brave。用形容词原形作表语。“It is+形容词+of sb to do sth”为固定句型。

14. the best。形容词最高级前加the是解题关键。

15. impressive。impressive是形容词,意为“印象深刻的”。

(三)短文填空

A

1.a。a certain表示“某一”,后接可数名词单数。

2.repeatedly。副词repeatedly修饰谓语动词do。

3.impossible。根据句意可知与difficult并列,只能用impossible。

4.important。作系动词IS的表语,应用形容词important。

5.often。孩子们经常养成坏习惯。

6.as。as long as意为“同……一样长”。

7.other。有许多在人生早期形成的其他习惯。

8.successful。作名词men的定语,应用形容词successful修饰。

9.habits。形容词certaln表示“某些”,其后接复数名词。

10. away。keep away from意为“摆脱”。

B

1.anxiously。根据下面提到的“Are your dogs missing?”可知“焦急地”问我。

2.nervousness。介词with后接名词,故填名词nervousness意为“紧张不安”。

3.are staying。根据语境可知现在正在家里,故用现在进行时。

4.an。根据句意及old-fashioned heart可知填an。

5.where。分析句子结构可知,这里是定语从句,且从句中缺少状语,故填Where。

6.right。形容词right“正确的”,作定语,修饰名词thing。

7. down/alongo walk down/along the street意为“沿着大街走”。

8.But。根据前后句意可知,前后意思表达相反,应用转折词But。

9.would。如果我正在单独的哭泣,我会希望有人停下来,给我擦干眼泪。

benefit形容词篇3

关键词:语法 隐喻 科技 语篇 贡献

1.引言

古希腊的亚里士多德最早研究隐喻现象。隐喻研究的传统是把隐喻看成是词汇层面的现象。系统功能语法将隐喻看成是一种词汇语法现象,同时涉及词汇层和语法层,属于语法隐喻的范畴。Halliday研究了科技语篇的语法隐喻现象,认为名物化是其主要体现,是打包信息的主要手段之一,有助于构建正式的书面语体。科技语篇的特征是逻辑性、客观性强,语言简洁,语法结构简单,词汇密度高,往往是语法隐喻出现较多的语篇。笔者以科技语篇的讨论部分为对象,取自“Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America”(PNAS,April 2,2002;volume 99;No.7),从语法隐喻的词汇语法表征及动机进行分析,讨论语法隐喻在语篇中的衔接作用,分析语法隐喻的贡献。

2.系统功能语法框架下的语法隐喻和衔接

2.1系统功能语法下的语法隐喻

Halliday(1985)最先提出语法隐喻的概念,之后的一些著作中也有详细论述。胡壮麟(2005:16)指出功能语言学认为语言是有层次的,至少包括语义层、词汇语法层和音系层。各层次之间是体现关系。黄国文(1999)提到“形势和意义之间并不存在着一对一的关系,一种形势可以表示一种以上的意义,一种意义也可由两种或更多的形势体现”。即实现形式有无限的意义潜势。当形势和意义之间的体现关系合乎自然标准,如“动作体现为动作,描述体现为形容词,逻辑关系体现为连词”(Halliday & Martin,1993;引自刘宇红,2001)。这种形式就被认定为一致式,否则就是隐喻式。功能语言学中,这种隐喻涉及词汇语法层,就是语法隐喻的范畴。

对于一致式和隐喻式的区分。Halliday和Martin对一致式和隐喻式出现的语域作过讨论。Halliday指出语法隐喻多出现在书面语言,尤其是科技语篇中,较少出现在儿童诗歌和儿歌中。一致式是意义体现的典型方式,这种构建经验的典型方式可谓是学习者最先学习的,或者是大多数情况下采用的。Halliday(1996)从词汇语法体现的角度方面,将一致式定义为语义层和词汇语法层在语言最初阶段所体现的联系。Thompson(1996/2000:164)认为意义的体现方式和外部世界有某种默认的联系,如事件由物质过程体现,内心活动由精神过程体现,命令由祈使句体现,陈述由陈述句体现。这就是一致式的体现形式。胡壮麟(2000)对评判一致式的标准作了归纳:以年龄为标准;以难易度为标准;以合乎自然为标准;以历时为标准;以方式为标准。刘宇红(2001)提出了三个标准:主语典型性标准;是否隐含根隐喻的标准;是否体现人体活动的标准。

科技语篇的特点是逻辑性强,语言简洁,专业术语多,语言彰显客观性,这些特征往往在词汇语法层面有体现,最突出的体现形式就是语法隐喻的大量使用。Halliday(1996)对语法隐喻在词汇语法层和语义层的体现特点作了归纳,表中所归纳的语法隐喻表征从语义方面看,主要为:把从属过程实现为事物,把因果关系实现为事物,把过程实现为特征,把方式状态实现为特征,把时间关系实现为特征,把从属过程实现为特征。

朱永生(2006)认为名物化即涉及把过程看成事物,把特征看作事物,把评价看作事物。同时他还提出了动词化,并将其分为四个小类:把时间关系看作过程,把因果关系看作过程,把条件关系看作过程,把让步关系看作过程。

Halliday(1996)指出科技语篇的小句的结构一般比较简单:句首和句末为名次词组,中间有动词词组连接,语法范畴大大减少。隐喻式的一个趋势是降级,句丛降级为小句,小句降级为成分,从而使一个语法范畴可以容纳更多的语义特征。

2.2衔接

胡壮麟(2005)概括了系统功能语法中对衔接的研究。衔接分为语法衔接(照应、省略、替代和连接)和词汇衔接(重复、同义/反义、上下义/局部整体关系和搭配)。

3.具体分析

分析主要按以下步骤进行:识别语篇中的语法隐喻,用黑体标出,并将可能的一致表达方式放在括号中,比较二者在意义实现上的不同,确认语法隐喻在实现衔接中的贡献。

3.1语篇中的语法隐喻现象

1-1 Nitrogen deposition is a global problem that requires accurate monitoring at a variety of spatial scales.

(a)Nitrogen deposition(how does Nitrogen deposit)

小句的标示“Nitrogen deposition”是作为术语出现的,对应的一致式可以理解为how does Nitrogen deposit。即一致式中的主语“Nitrogen”在隐喻式中打包为名次词组的类别语,放在中心语deposition之前,限定中心语。为词汇重复提供可能,有助于实现衔接。

(b)requires(should be)

情态的隐喻。表义务的意态化意义由隐喻式体现,将主观的判断来源隐藏,用客观的物质过程(requires)表达。同时,主语“the problem”和补语“accurate monitoring”的关系“a依赖于x”,即因果关系,也打包进了主谓词“requires”里。

(c)accurate monitoring(be monitored accurately)

这个隐喻式包含了两个语法层面的转换:动词名词(be monitoredmonitoring),即原本表示过程的意义实现为事物;副词形容词(accuratelyaccurate),表示方式的意义实现为事物的特征。

(d)a variety of(various)

科技语篇的一个倾向是较少出现修饰性或集中型的小句,主要因为科技语篇较少依赖描述词。

1-2 Although S.purpurea is a long-lived perennial plant,our experiments showed that it is phenotypiclally plastic.

(a)long-lived(live for a long time)

1-3 Within a single growing season,individual rosettes respond to local increases in N availability by shifting rapidly from production of carnivorous pithers to production of more photosynthetically efficient phyllodia.

(a)within

正如一些语言学家指出的,within是空间维度的一致式,这里,它表示时间维度,虽然隐喻的色彩不那么明显。这也可以看成是语言的非隐喻化演变。

(b)respond to(vary because)

这个限定动词词组同样将两个事物“individual rosettes”和“local increases”的关系前景化,“甲导致乙在某一特征上的变化”(Halliday,1988)。表原因的逻辑意义的一致式体现方式是连词,如果将其编码为过程,原本静态的意义就动态化,让这种关系得以强调。从这个意义上看,隐喻式恰恰显示了世界的本原。

(c)increases in N availability(N is available and it is increasing)

两个小句压缩为一个词组,信息量却没有减少。

(d)shifting from...to...

这种表达方式表明了两个事件的时间顺序。与1-3-(b)类似,将逻辑关系动词化了。

(e)production of carnivorous pithers;production of phyllodia

科技语篇中往往用介词短语of-结构容纳一致式中的动作者和目标。

1-4 Because S.purpurea commonly occurs in bogs and other wetlands throughout Canada and eastern North America,and has been introduced in Western Europe and Japan,we propose that it can be used as a ready biological indicator of local N deposition,based on simple measurements taken only with field calipers.

(a)biological indicator of(indicate...in biological perspective)

一致式中的过程名物化了,方式实现为描述语。小句降级为名词词组。同1-2一样,隐喻式让信息的传递更经济。

(b)simple measurement taken(measure in a simple way)

Halliday特地提到过这类语法隐喻,“have a bath,do a dance,make a mistake,这类短语中,动词表示某一过程的发生,承担了时态、归一性等范畴,而实际的过程却隐喻为名词词组,做短语的范围”(Halliday,1994/2000:348)。measure这一过程实现为隐喻式短语的范围。

1-5 The ecophysiological mechanism underlying this biological indicator also suggests that other carnivorous plants could be used as similar biological indicators of nutrient accumulation and saturation.

(a)biological indicator; biological indicators of

(b)nutrient accumulation and saturation(how nutrient is accumulated and how it is saturates)

一致式的语法结构比隐喻式的语法结构复杂。隐喻式小句往往词汇密度大,传递的信息更多。语法隐喻是将小句降级为词组或短语的一个有效方式。

1-6 The cost-benefit model for the evolution of carnivory(12)predicted that carnivory will not be favored when there is an excess supply of nutrients in the environment.

(a)the cost-benefit model(the model of cost and benefit)

一致式名词词组中的限定语在隐喻式中编码为类别语,省掉了介词短语,让隐喻式的结构更简单。

(b)the evolution of carnivory(carnivory evolves)

(c)an excess supply(is supplied excessively)

名词词组中的描写语相当于一致式中的方式成分。将过程名物化,方式形容词化,都是这一类实现方式的共同特征,如1-1-(c)和1-4-(a)。

1-7 Although this model was developed to predict the evolution of botanical carnivory,the production of carnivorous organs is phenotypicllay plastic(Fig.1).

(a)the evolution of botanical carnivory(carnivory evolves in the perspective of botany)

(b)the production of organs(organs are produced)

1-8 The cost-benefit model also predicted that there should be a photosynthetic cost to producing carnivorous structures,and we observed this cost as well(Fig.2).

(a)the cost-benefit model

语义重复,是增强语篇的衔接的一种方式。

1-9 Plants do not respond to nutrients in isolation,however.

(a)respond to(vary because)

原因关系动词化。

(b)in isolation(respectively)

形容词和副词都强调主观感受,科技语篇的特征之一是客观性,因而这一类的词应该尽量避免使用。而派生出来的抽象名词却可以增强语篇的抽象性和正式性。

1-10 For example,S.purpurea produces pitchers at extremely high levels of pore-water NH4+,such as those observed at two bogs in Vermont,possibly as another nutrient(e.g.,P)becomes limiting.

这句中不包含语法隐喻。

1-11 This hypothesis is supported inferentially by observation of N/P ratios>15 in these two Vermont bogs.

(a)observation of N/P ratios(N/P ratios that we have observed)

1-12 Although the dominant nutrient contributed by insect prey to pitcher plants is N(39),insect prey also are a source of P for pitcher plants(21).

(a)a source of(produce)

这一处隐喻式很好地说明了隐喻式有助于科技语言的抽象,名词source 比相应的动词更抽象、更间接。

1-13 Other carnivorous plants also have been shown to vary their production of carnivorous structures in response to nutrient availability,including species in the globally widespread genera Utricularia(13-15)and Pinguicula(40,41).

(a)vary in response to

“vary” 在这里是一致式,“in response to” 则是隐喻式。两个表达方式放在一起相当于一致式“respond to”。相较于一致式,“in response to” 中不包含限定式,也就不显示该论断有效性的时间所指,从而暗示了两个事物之间关系的长期性。

1-14 Carnivorous plants occur in nutrient-poor habitats on every continent except Antarctica(42); 15.further research on the morphological responses of these unique plants to nutrients could lead to the development of inexpensive biological indicators for a broad spectrum of anthropogenic nutrients.

(a)nutrient-poor(are poor in nutrient)

“nutrient-poor” 可以解压为形容性/集中型类别的关系过程。一致式中的表特征的“poor in nutrient” 可以实现为描述语,放在载体前面。关系过程通过降级,实现为介词词组的一部分。

(b)morphological responses of(how does...respond in the aspect of morphology)

名词词组的中心语是一致式物质过程的方式成分。这里也涉及了将一致式小句降级为名词词组。实现方式主要通过两种语法层面的转换:动词名词(respond response),介词短语形容词(in the aspect of morphology mophological)。of-结构用来编码动作者。

(c)lead to(because...; cause)

逻辑意义不是由连词来体现,而是由动词词组lead to体现。

通过对文中语法隐喻的分析可以看出:隐喻式主要是名物化和动词化;语法隐喻构建真实世界,还原真实的逻辑关系,如因果关系;将多个信息单位融合到一个小句中,将一致式中的过程小句降级为主语、补语或状语,最主要的过程作隐喻式的主谓词;降级之后的表达方式更易于在下文中提及,通过词汇重复体现衔接;语法隐喻使得小句的语法结构简化,小句之间的联系突出。

3.结语

本文主要以科技语篇的讨论部分为对象,讨论了语法隐喻的现象。语法隐喻的特征是将语义和语法结构降级,使得语篇的词汇密度大,语法结构简单,更易于实现衔接。科技语篇的讨论部分主要用于讨论研究的重要性,与之前的相关的研究的关系,以及研究涉及的所有事物的关系的论述,讨论的逻辑性能很好地依赖语法隐喻实现。研究是对语法隐喻在科技语篇等正式语体中出现的必然性的证实,可以让语言使用者更好地理解语法隐喻这一现象,同时在语言使用中恰当地使用语法隐喻;同时也有助于对科技语篇的理解。笔者只选取了科技语篇的讨论部分这一特定语域作为语料,相关的研究可以用更丰富的语料进行分析。

参考文献:

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[5]Halliday,M.A.K.An Introduction to Functional Grammar.London:Arnold / Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,1994/2000.

[6]Halliday,M.A.K.& Hasan,R. Cohesion in English.London:Arnold./Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching an Research Press,1976/2001.

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[10]胡壮麟,朱永生,张德禄,李战子.系统功能语言学概论.北京:北京大学出版社,2005.

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benefit形容词篇4

关键词:语料库 作文 对比分析

1.引言

英语写作的研究一直是外语教学的重点。写作考察的核心技能之一就是能否正确使用词汇。“没有语法,人们可以表达的事物寥寥无几;而没有词汇,人们则无法表达任何事物”(胡壮麟,李战子,2004:47),由此可见英语写作中词汇学习的重要性。英语词汇的丰富性(lexical richness)是评估学习者产出性词汇运用能力的一个重要指标,它一般涉及词汇变化性、词汇密度、词汇复杂度和词汇独特性等(Laufer & Nation,1995)。

凭借多年的经验,笔者认为学生作文中的词汇存在如下特点:(1)过度使用英语简单高频词,如important, helpful, necessary, recently, I think, in my opinion等;(2)过度使用上义词(superordinate),如thing, people等;(3)词类使用不均,形容词使用较多,副词使用较少,仅仅very, extremely少数几个。国内外学者对英语作文词汇早已进行相关研究,但是大部分都是凭借经验之谈,只呈现问题现状,未见实质性的对策。

2.研究方法

词汇一直都是英语写作的重要内容。传统的作文词汇评估受到技术手段限制,一直都停留在宏观分析和经验探讨的阶段。近些年来,语料库语言学的发展为作文评估提供了独特的视角,特别是在词汇评估上具有先天优势。Kennedy 从理论上肯定了语料库与词汇分析之间的紧密联系。

本研究以英语专业大二学生150篇电子稿命题专四作文(作文主题为环境方面:雾霾、污染;字数总量:31107字)作为研究对象,借助计算机检索软件AntConc对其进行定量检索和统计,以客观和直观的形式呈现英语作文词汇丰富程度;并通过与自建《纽约时报》语料库(所对应的主题亦为环境方面,字数总量:30037字)进行对比,最后呈现相关词汇及其搭配特点。

3.研究结果和分析

作文词汇由实词和虚词两部分组成,实词起到重要的语义作用,本文将重心落实到实词上面。实词可以进一步分为名词、形容词、动词和副词等,下文就从这四个方面展开分析。

3.1形容词方面

经过对比分析,发现学生作文中出现的形容词有wonderful, fantastic, interesting, important, essential, serious, terrible等52种,而对纽约时报参照语料库进行统计分析,发现103个不同类型的形容词,如severe, dire, notorious, catastrophic, essential, substantial等,部分例子如下:(a)Environmental degradation is now so severe, with such stark domestic and international repercussions, that pollution ...(b)...said Zhang Zhongmin, who has tried for 20 years to raise public awareness about the city’s dire water situation.(c) Environmental woes that might be considered catastrophic in some countries can seem commonplace in China.

形容词是表达情感的,笔者将形容词简单分成积极形容词和消极形容词。限于文章篇幅,仅对消极方面的形容词进行对比分析,将在学习者作文语料库中极少出现,但是在纽约时报语料库中出现并且频次较高的形容词进行搭配分析,总结如下:Severe (problem, difficulty, damage, disease, pressure, condition); catastrophic (consequence, effects, decline); dire (situation, consequence, warning); rampant (pollution, inflation, corruption, population); looming (environmental disaster); notorious(example, case); inadequate (resource, facility, service); irreversible(damage, change); gloomy; throat-cut (competition, opposition, resistance)。

3.2副词方面

副词可以修饰动词或形容词,以进一步表达作者的态度和情感。因此,对动词的调查具有较为重要的现实意义。通过对比分析,学习者作文语料库常见的副词有very, extremely, terribly, interestingly, probably等有限的15个。除了very这个副词使用频率较高以外,其他副词使用频率极低。反观纽约时报参照语料库,副词的种类较为丰富,而且使用频率较高,具体副词如下:readily, undoubtedly, sharply, steadily, rapidly, considerably, extensively, widely, significantly, continually, markedly, greatly, keenly, substantially, thoroughly, fully, fundamentally, constantly, surely, efficiently, firmly, drastically, closely, immensely, certainly等。列举数例:(a)...urbanization that requires colossal inputs of energy, almost all from coal, the most readily available, and dirtiest, source.(b)...campaigns have been started to close illegal coal mines and shutter some heavily polluting factories.(c) It will accept no mandatory limits on its carbon dioxide emissions, which would almost certainly reduce its industrial growth.(d) even from people in the ruling party, to submit to oversight from the public, for which pollution has become a daily ―― and increasingly deadly ―― reality.

3.3 动词方面

谓语动词连接主语、宾语或表语,具有很强的及物性。通过对比分析,我们发现学习者惯用cause, lead to, contribute to, suffer from, result in, be good for, be beneficial to, support, agree, approve, destroy等,且这些动词的使用频率很高,像result in, lead to, support等词重复多次出现。反观纽约时报语料库,除了contribute to, result in, be beneficial to等词经常出现外,也经常出现其他动词。为了便于分析,笔者将这些动词主要分成消极和积极两大类,部分动词还附上了搭配词。消极方面的动词主要如下:exert a negative influence /pressure on, spoil, criticize, result in, pose (a burden on), pose (a challenge to sb), collapse, impinge on, deteriorate, exacerbate, incite(social unrest), alienate (business interests), curtail(economic development), abuse (environment, power), tear (sb) down, deplete等。积极方面的动词主要如下:Attach great importance to, guarantee, benefit, achieve, fulfill, give priority to, be beneficial for sb, broaden(one’s horizon), be vital to sth, alleviate, embrace, spur (growth), combat(global warming), soar, generate (high rates of economic growth), ensure(social order), fuel (economic growth), eliminate, strengthen, moderate, be critical to sth, release(pressure), advocate等。部分例子如下:(a) In that period, China relied mainly on light industry and small-scale private enterprise to spur growth.(b) ...raising concerns that siphoning away clean water northward will exacerbate pollution problems in the south.(c) ...a political and environmental boon as pressure to combat climate change has increased.(d) The costs of pollution have mounted well before it is ready to curtail economic development.

3.4名词方面

通过对比分析,发现学习者惯用problem, environment, pollution, issue, phenomenon等词,名词种类繁多。参照语料库的名词使用也比较类似,常常使用problem, environment等词,但是和学习者语料库不同的是,参照语料库常用一些动名词或形容词的名词形式,如advocate, growth, deterioration, emissions等词,列举两例:(a) ... still treats environmental advocates as bigger threats than the degradation of air, water and soil that prompts them to speak out.(b) The main reason behind the continued deterioration of the environment is a mistaken view of what counts as political achievement.

4.结语

本研究通过对学习者语料库和参照语料库的对比分析,很好地呈现了学习者词汇“丰富性”现状,尤其是在形容词、副词、动词和名词方面使用的词类较少,导致部分常见词使用频率较高,存在“过多使用”和“过少使用”的情况。研究呈现了参照语料库中常使用的对应词类,并附上了搭配词,从而更好地帮助学习者了解和掌握这些词及其使用特点,进一步丰富作文内涵。

参考文献:

[1]Laufer,B.and P.Nation.1995.Vocabulary size and use:lexical richness in L2 written production [J].Applied Linguistics,16:307-322.

[2]Kennedy,G.1998.An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics [M].London:Addison Wesley Longman.

[3]胡痒耄李战子.语言学简明教程(中文版)[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004.

benefit形容词篇5

一、研究方法

本研究以学习者语料库CLEC(中国学习者语料库)为基础,来调查形容词good和名词的搭配。作为对照的母语者语料库是BNC(英语本族语者语料库)中的子库。CLEC主要包括高中生和大学生的作文,BNC收集了口语和书面语,涵盖范围广。具体的研究方法为:使用检索工具Antconc 3.2,分别在CLEC 和BNC中对节点词(即研究者在语料库中检查其搭配行为的关键词)good进行检索,除去good 和介词、形容词、动词的搭配以及good作为名词的用法之外,统计good在两个语料库中与名词搭配出现的有效频率,并进行标准化处理。按照good的用法对这些搭配词进行分类,最后从典型搭配和异常搭配的角度分析这些搭配词,找出不同语义关系下学习者和英语本族语者的使用差异。

二、结果分析

1. 总体差异

在两个语料库中分别检索节点词good,统计后得到good在两个语料库中出现的频率并对频率进行标准化处理,计算每一百万词中good可能出现的频率,如表1所示。

Good在CLEC中的标准化频率为1250,在BNC中是273, 两个数字之间的差异表明中国学生有过度使用good这个词的倾向。可能的原因有:中国学习者在学习的过程中,最早学习并使用的形容词就是good,学习者认为他们很熟悉这个词语,只要是想表达“好”这个意思,都可以用这个词语。其次,中国学习者由于受到词汇量的制约,在写作中只能用一些高频形容词,而不是一些更具体的词。而英语本族语者不仅使用这些高频形容词,而且还能根据句子意思,使用更符合语义韵的词语。通过统计good的搭配词,笔者发现中国学习者使用good 搭配的词语仅有37种,包括health,job,time,teacher,use,way等,而本族语使用good 搭配的词语多达100多种,是中国学习者的3倍之多,包括idea,deal,news,time,reason/s,thing/s等。这一差异显示中国学习者习得的词汇种类不多,词汇量不够大,因而他们只能用一些早期习得的词汇,并且反复使用。另一个原因可能跟语料库有关,BNC语料库由口笔语语料库组成,涉及话题多,语料库的容量也多,因此搭配词的种类会相应的多一些。通过比较这些搭配词,笔者发现中国学生喜欢使用名词的单数形式,而英语本族语者同时使用名词的单数和复数形式。例如,中国学习者仅用good example,good result,而英语本族语者使用了good examples,good results. 这说明中国学习者对名词单复数的掌握不熟,不确定哪些情况下要用名词的单数形式,哪些情况下要用名词的复数形式,为了避免麻烦,他们选择更多的使用单数形式。另外,本族语者不仅能使用这些高频形容词描述事物,还能用更贴切的词语。如中国学习者用good care表示“好好照顾”,而英语本族语者使用 great care 或practical care.如下所示:

(1)...on a table saw. The guards are removed so great care has to be taken and hands kept well clear...

(2)...are to continue providing unconditional practical care on such a wide level then we need your support to...

2. 典型搭配和异常搭配

good可以和不同类型的名词搭配,这些名词被归纳成两类词:抽象名词和具体名词。与抽象名词搭配时通常表达的意思有以下几种:(1)sth is pleasant and enjoyable. 如good time / life / humor/job.(2)sth is of high quality and standard. 如 good food / education / quality. (3) sth is likely to result in benefit or success. 如good news / fortune/ example /condition / effect / luck. (4) sth is valid. 如good idea / reason / method / measure. (5) cheerful and pleasant to be with,如good mood / humor / mind.

在CLEC和BNC中出现的具体名词可分为3类:(1)与人有关:teacher,friend,student.(2)与物体有关:job,thing,work.(3)与地点有关:place.另外,笔者发现good与名词的搭配中,CLEC和BNC共有的显著搭配词有:job,time,way,thing,luck,idea,news and example. 这些中国学习者和本族语学习者共有的显著性搭配词被称为典型搭配。典型搭配体现了语言使用的地道性和自然性,这说明中国学习者对有些形容词名词搭配掌握得较好。

分析完CLEC和BNC中good的典型搭配之后,笔者找出两个语料库中的***型搭配词,即在CLEC中出现但在BNC中没有出现的搭配词。笔者选取了CLEC中排名第一的health为例,检索了此词在CLEC和BNC中的搭配信息。索引行如下:(1)Once you have good health,you can do everything you want to do.(2)... is fortunate that you have good health. 而good health 在BNC中的搭配如下:(3)They were,of course,much more so far those not in good health...(4)She and her twin daughters are in good health...在BNC中,某人身体健康用sb is in good health表达,而在CLEC中,出现了一些不恰当的用法,如have/ need/ keep good health.

笔者比较了CLEC中其他与good搭配的名词在BNC中的用法,发现还有一些语义表达错误的异常搭配。以death为例,笔者从CLEC中抽取death的索引行如下:(5) ... the law of life,and euthanasia is a way of good death. The laws on euthanasia should be worked out to...(6) ... in China that a bad living is better than a good death(好死不如赖活着). 笔者发现在BNC中,没有“好死”这种表达,与death搭配词的索引行有:(7) ... against thee,and thou shalt die an honorable death in thine own house,and in thy renown,for God has...(8)These were the alternatives to a quick,merciful death. Against such chilling prospects...(9) ... enjoy being“half in love with easeful death”,or telling myself...比较CLEC和BNC中关于death的用法后,笔者发现中国学习者表达的good death有两种意思。一种是没有疼痛的死,英语本族语者表达为merciful/ easeful death. 另一种是有价值的死,本族语者表达为honorable death. 这说明中国学习者在用形容词搭配名词时,语义不准确,喜欢用简单的概括的词去代替具体的精确的词。而英语本族语者在使用形容词搭配名词时,会充分考虑到词语的语境,用最恰当的词语表达。另外两个典型的例子为rest和sleep,中国学习者喜欢用good rest形容好好休息,而英语本族语者则用complete rest 来表达这一意思。在表达睡得好时,中国学习者喜欢用good sleep,而英语本族语者更倾向于用更形象的词,如sound sleep.很明显,中国学习者的表达很大程度上受到母语的干扰,容易根据该单词的中文意思进行直接翻译。

三、教学启示

英语教师在词汇教学过程中,应更多的关注词语的搭配,而不是词的字面意思。教师要教会学生词汇学习策略,让学生意识到词语搭配对词汇学习的重要性。语境化词汇教学是帮助学生习得更多词汇的一个有效方法。语境有助于理解、记忆、操练和运用词汇,通过语境,学生能看到词汇的搭配和具体用法。教师可以把语料库语言学与词汇教学相结合,利用语料库的检索功能,给学生提供目标词汇的典型语境,使学生体验词汇和词组在不同语境中的用法。通过分析词汇的用法、固定搭配等,教会学生如何正确使用这些高频词汇,以丰富学生词汇的深度和广度。另外,教师应注重词汇短语教学,把短语作为一个整体教给学生,这样有助于缩短学生在词语选用方面与英语本族语者之间的差异,使他们选用的词语表达更加地道。

benefit形容词篇6

主谓不一致,即主语和谓语在人称和数等方面未能保持一致。此类错误形式主要有以下几种:

A.主语因其形式特殊或因由一个或几个复杂成分修饰而导致主语与谓语单复数形式不能保持一致。如:

①Acoustics are taught in some colleges.(are应改为is——以-s或-es结尾的用以表示学科、疾病、游戏等的名词作主语时,其谓语动词应用单数形式。)

② Understanding the cultural habits of another nation,especially one containing so many diversified subcultures as the US,area complex,bewildering task to us.(are应改为is——主语是一个动名词短语,尽管其后有较长的修饰成分,然而其谓语仍需用单数形式。)

B.定语从句的谓语动词未能与先行词在人称和数上保持一致。如:

① I,who is your friend,will do my best to help you.(is应改为am——先行词在定语从句结构中作主语时,定语从句的谓语动词要与被修饰的先行词保持一致。)

② Tom is the only one of the pupils who are willing to take make-up examinations.(are应改为is——在由the only one of等加复数名词或代词再加定语从句结构中,谓语动词应用单数形式。)

C.按照语法要求,某些短语或结构后所跟谓语动词必须用单数或复数形式。如:

①Six times two are twelve.(are应改为 is——在加、减、乘、除运算中,谓语动词要用单数形式。)

② The police is looking for the escaped criminal.(is应改为are——当主语为people, police,folk,cattle等集合名词时,谓语动词通常用复数形式。)

时态及语态错误

时态及语态使用错误也是改错题常考内容之一,其中时态方面错误主要包括:

A.单句或并列句中的时态用错或不一致。如:

At the party the film star sang a song for us and later dances for the elderly.(dances应

改为danced——在并列句中,谓语动词时态多保持一致。)

B.主句与从句的时态不一致。如:

He was a teacher before he became the manager of a big firm.(was应改为had been——当教师的时间应在做经理之前。)

语态方面的错误主要表现为主动语态及被动语态的混用等。如:

①I never imagined that waste paper can use so widely.(can use应改为can be used——纸张与利用之间应为被动关系。)

  ②Large masses of data must be generally undergone a process of summarization.(must be generally undergone应改为must generally undergo——undergo“经历,遭受”多用主动形式。)

形容词、副词用法错误

形容词、副词用法错误主要包括:

A.形容词、副词使用不当。如:

①I frequently feel weakly and dissatisfied with myself.(weakly应改为weak——feel为系动词。)

②The cat ran quick as soon as he saw the dog.(quick应改为quickly——run为实意动词,修饰动词应用副词。)

B.形容词、副词在原级、比较级、最高级方面的使用错误。

①形容词或副词未用比较级形式。如:It is well-known that the sun is much big than the moon.(big应改为bigger——比较级前可以

由many ,much,a little等词修饰表示程度。)

②不可分级的形容词、副词误用了比较级结构。如:But for some spelling mistakes, your composition would be more perfect.(应去掉more——perfect没有比较级和最高级形式。)

③比较级与最高级混淆。如:Of all the toys the boy saw in the window,the thing he wanted more was a new watch.(more应改为 most——在有of all the,of the whole等短语的句子中应使用形容词最高级形式。)

④比较级、最高级结构中的副词、连词、固定结构等方面的错误。如:a.The more you study during the semester,the lesser you have to do that before the exam.(lesser应改为 less——the less本身已是比较级形式。); b.This product is more inferior than the one you bought yesterday.(than应改为to——表示比较时inferior后应加介词to。);c.Everest is three times as high than the Matterhorn,the highest mountain in Europe.(than应改为as——此处为“数词+times+as+形容词原级形式+as”的同级比较结构。)

⑤混淆句中用于比较的两个部分。如: The climate in the coastal cities is much warmer than in the interior cities.(在than与 in之间应加指示代词that——句中用于比较的两个部分是气候而不是地区。)

虚拟语气用法错误

虚拟语气用法错误主要包括:

A.主句或从句的动词形式未用虚拟语气形式。如:

I we had more rain last summer,we would have a harvest.(应分别改为had had与would have had——此句应用与过去事实相反的虚拟语气形式。)

B.混合型虚拟句中的主从句动词形式出现错误。如:

I you had been older,I would have al- lowed you to go that day.(had been应改为 were——条件句可以指目前情况下的一种假设。)

C.在由表示“建议、要求、命令、坚持”等意思的动词引导的宾语从句中,动词使用出现错误。如: The employer ordered that

the letter would be delivered at once.(应改为 should be或be——在表示“建议、要求、命令、坚持”等意思的动词引导的宾语从句中,谓语动词要用should加动词原形或直接用动词原形。)

D.特殊虚拟语气形式出现错误。如: Without the radio-receiver,the large an- tenna will be of no use.(应改为would——由连词suppose,provided或介词without,but for等引导的句子,谓语动词应用虚拟形式。)

非谓语动词即不定式、动名词、 分词用法错误

非谓语动词用法错误主要由以下几个部分构成:

A.现在分词形式与过去分词形式混淆。如:

① The victory was no more convinced than I had expected.(convinced应改为convincing———此处表语为“令人信服的”之意,表示主语的特征。)

②The teacher went into the classroom, following by some students.(following应改为 followed——动词follow与其逻辑主语 teacher之间应为被动关系。)

③The boy’s delighting look tells us that he passed the exam.(delighting应改为de- lighted——此处定语为“高兴的、兴奋的”之意,表示主语的状态。)

B.不定式与动名词相互混淆。如:

①To lie is vice.(To lie应改为Lying——此处主语指的是抽象的概念性动作。)

② Lying about it will only make matters worse.(Lying应改为To lie——此处主语指的是具体的、一次性的动作。)

C.非谓语动作发生时间与谓语动作发生时间的方面出现错误。如:

I remember locking the door when I left home this morning.(locking应改为having locked——非谓语动作发生时间早于主语动作发生时间。)

D.特殊非谓语动词结构方面出现错误。如:

You have to practise to speak English as much as possible now since you are going to England next year.(to speak应改为speaking——practise后的宾语要用-ing形式。)

倒装结构错误

倒装结构错误主要表现为:

A.表示否定意义的词或词组位于句首时,句子未用倒装结构。如:

Under no circumstances we should do anything that will benefit ourselves but harm the others.(we should do应改为should we do——具有否定意义的词及词组位于句首时,句子需用倒装结构。)

B.only引导状语位于句首时,句子未用倒装结构。如:

Only when David did it a second time he realized his mistakes.(he realized应改为did he realize——only引导状语位于句首修饰全句时,句子要用倒装语序。)

C.以so,such等开头的句子未用倒装结构。如:

So badly the boy was injured that he was detained in the hospital for months.(the boy was应改为was the boy——so,such等加形容词、副词位于句首时,句子要用倒装结构。)

D.倒装结构中的其他常见错误。如:

①Away the car went like a whirlwind.(the car went应改为went the car——些表示运动方向的副词位于句首时,句子要用全部倒装结构。)

②“Come back on time,my boy,”the mother said angrily.(the mother said应改为 said the mother——直接引语置于句首且主语为非人称代词时,主谓部分应采用倒装结构。)

肯定形式与否定形式错误

肯定、否定形式错误主要表现为在特定的上下文环境中该用肯定形式却用成了否定形式或反之。如:

①There is enough audience and also it is a large room,you will probably not have to use a microphone.(去掉not——由上下文内容来看,该句应用肯定形式。)

②Science itself is harmless,but as soon as it can provide technology,it is not necessarily harmful.(harmful应改为harmless——本句所要说明的是科学在某种条件下的危害性。)

③The Department of Environment that was created shows how unimportant this issue is considered to be.(unimportant应改为important——上下文所要说明的是该问题的重要性。)

平行结构错误

平行结构错误指的是根据句子的意思需要、句子的结构要求或表达习惯的限制等,句中某些并列、对等部分应在形式上或意义上保持一致而实际上却未能如此。如:

①My room mate is generous,inconsiderate,and easy to get along with.(inconsiderate应改为considerate——根据上下文的意思应为“体谅人的”之意。)

②Black Smith mopped the floor,cleaned the windows,and other odd jobs.(应在and与other之间加did——该句谓语部分是由三个不同动作构成的并列谓语。)

③The value of a course depends as much on its inherent interest on its practical use.(应在interest与on之间加as——本句应为as...as固定结构。)

词序错误

词序错误主要指的是由于违背了一些固定的表达式或词语习惯的、约定俗成的先后顺序而造成的错误。如:

① With this kind of instrument the navigator is able to determine where exactly he is.(应改为exactly where——根据语法习惯,exactly应位于特殊疑问词之前。)

②The vest is enough hard to resist a bullet shot from 10

0 meters away.(应改为 hard enough——enough修饰形容词、副词及其短语时应位于所修饰词之后。) ③The wise man can give you a quite good idea if you ask him.(应改为quite a good——quite作定语修饰名词时应位于不定冠词a /an之前。)

缺漏及赘述错误

缺漏及赘述错误主要表现为漏掉介词、代词、关系词、冠词、连词等或重复意义相同或相近的词语以及出现两个主语等。如:

①We have to make clear to each worker that everybody must observe these rules.(在 make后加it——宾语为动词不定式或从句时,必须在动词与宾语补足语之间加上形式宾语it。)

② Though we have known great deal about space,we still have a lot to learn.(在 great deal之前应加a——词组a great deal“大量,许多”,修饰不可数名词。)

③The songs sounded via radios in restaurants,from cars passing on the highways and shoeshine parlors.(在and与shoeshine之间加in——此处应是与前面词组on the highways并列的介词短语。)

④Both natural and synthetic man-made rubber are of little value in their raw state.(去掉synthetic或man-made——两个同义词放在一起,造成重复。)

benefit形容词篇7

1. 将同位语嵌入简单句中

同位语的功能是对前面的名词或代词进行解释说明。可用同位语来合并两个相关的简单句,让句子结构简单明了。如:

Li Ming is our monitor. He is helpful as well as responsible.

Li Ming, our monitor, is helpful as well as responsible.

同时,含有定语从句的复合句,其实用含有同位语的简单句来表达,更简洁。如:

The other day I met Tom, who is my former classmate.

The other day I met Tom, my former classmate.

2. 将介词短语巧置简单句句首

The boy is honest as well as modest.

Apart from being honest, the boy is modest as well.

They chose to go out shopping rather than stay at home watching TV.

Rather than stay at home watching TV, they chose to go out shopping.

We have so much work to complete. We can’t relax ourselves this weekend.

With so much work to complete, we can’t relax ourselves this weekend.

3. 将分词短语揉入简单句中

He was lost in thought. He nearly bumped into a wall in front of him.

Lost in thought, he nearly bumped into a wall in front of him.

She buried herself in an amusing book. She was unaware of what was happening around her.

Burying herself in an amusing book, she was unaware of what was happening around her.

Buried in an amusing book, she was unaware of what was happening around her.

4. 将形容词(短语)插入简单句中

形容词(短语)置于句首,可以充当原因状语。如:

The speaker was nervous. He was unable to utter a word on the stage.

Nervous, the speaker was unable to utter a word on the stage.

此外,形容词(短语)还可以充当主语补足语,往往置于句末,用以补充说明主语的状态(注:也有人认为形容词在此充当伴随状语)。如:

They arrived home late. They were tired and hungry.

They arrived home late, tired and hungry.

5. 将插入语融入简单句中

有时,为了强调说话者的态度,可使用插入语。插入语可以是一个短语或句子,位置也比较灵活。如:

Without doubt, our team is bound to defeat theirs.

She, I suppose, is kind of shy.

You’re one of the most popular teachers in our school, to be honest with you.

除了上述提到的五种常用的手段外,其实,把简单句进行以下的“改装”,同样可以取得意想不到的效果。

6. 换成感叹句

The graduation ceremony is pretty memorable and unforgettable.

How memorable and unforgettable the graduation ceremony is!

Mr. Wang is an extremely hard-working and easy-going teacher.

What a hard-working and easy-going teacher Mr. Wang is!

7. 妙用倒装句

A small garden is in front of the house.

In front of the house is a small garden.

I realized my mistake at that moment.

Only at that moment did I realize my mistake.

I will always keep your practical suggestions in mind.

Never shall I forget your practical suggestions!

8. 善用强调句

Our parents took great pains to bring us up.

It is our parents who took great pains to bring us up.

The dirty water accounted for the illness of many people.

It was the dirty water that accounted for the illness of many people.

9. 巧用省略句

Are you free these days? Please pay me a visit.

Please pay me a visit when / if free these days.

Mr. Chen is in his eighties. He is still in good health.

Though in his eighties, Mr. Chen is in good health.

【牛刀小试】

为了让考生在高考的“书面表达”中更熟练地运用“高级简单句”,笔者特意设置了以下练习。

一、单句填空 根据中文提示完成以下句子。

1. _____________________________ (很好奇发生了什么事情),she walked into the restaurant to have a good look.

2. ______________________________ (受到老师的表扬), Li Ping works even harder than before.

3. ________________________________________ (那位村民在前面带路), we got to the destination without difficulty.

4. A lecture on how to improve self-confidence will be held by Mr. Yan, __________________________________________ (一位来自北京大学的教授).

5. ________________________ (精确来讲), his success largely depends on luck rather than on his ability.

6. ____________________ (有必要的话), I’ll do you a favor and help you out.

二、合并句子 用上述提到的手段将每组的两个句子合并成一个高级简单句。

1. Our school was built in 1916. It has a history of 100 years.

2. Tom’s father is a successful man. He is a manager of that company.

3. We saw a wonderful movie last night. The name of the movie is Gone with the Wind.

4. I won’t attend her wedding. Instead, I’ll do my work in the office tonight.

5. She was angry with her boyfriend. She ignored him on purpose.

6. My deskmate went home alone just now. He looked rather discouraged.

三、句子翻译 将下列句子译成英文。

1. 姚明,一位篮球运动员,是我见过的最高的人。

2. 时间允许的话,我会带你游览一下我的家乡。

3. 她面带微笑,心满意足地离开了***书馆。

4. 他的父亲在一间机构工作。那间机构附属于中山大学。(attach)

5. 我是在农村度过我难忘的童年的。

6. 我多么感激父母把我抚养大!

四、文段润色 请用各种手段将以下文段进行润色。

One day after school, we went home and felt relaxed. There was an old lady behind us, who is one of my neighbours. All of a sudden, a car was out of control and nearly bumped into us. We were lucky enough to avoid being hit. But unfortunately, the old lady was knocked down while she was crossing the street. As soon as we saw what had happened, we came up to her in a hurry and found that she was bleeding badly. We didn’t hesitate to send for an ambulance and took her to the nearby hospital. The doctors started operating on the old lady in no time and we were waiting anxiously outside. To our joy, the old lady was out of danger with the help of the doctors and she was able to walk normally a week later. Though she was in great pain, she never moaned(呻吟). She was really brave and determined.

五、写作运用 用各种手段将以下的文段进行润色。

Dear schoolmates and teachers,

I’m honored to give a brief speech at the graduation ceremony on behalf of all the senior three students.

In the past three years, we have devoted ourselves to studying to make our dreams come true. When we are faced with difficulties and challenges, we shall never give up. We help and learn from each other. We benefit a great deal from it. Meanwhile, our beloved teachers always spare no effort to help us. We are so grateful for their timely assistance and will never forget their kindness. If it is convenient and possible, we will pay them visits after we graduate from high school.

That’s all. Thanks for Listening.

【小试牛刀】答案

一、单句填空

1. Wondering what had happened / Curious about what had happened

2. Praised by the teacher

3. With the villager leading the way ahead / Led by the villager ahead

4. a professor from Peking University

5. Exactly speaking / To be exact

6. If / When necessary

二、合并句子

1. Built in 1916, our school has a history of 100 years.

2. Tom’s father, a manager of that company, is a successful man.

3. We saw a wonderful movie with the name / entitled Gone with the Wind last night.

4. Instead of attending her wedding, I’ll do my work in the office tonight. / Rather than attend her wedding, I’ll do my work in the office tonight.

5. Angry with her boyfriend, she ignored him on purpose.

6. My deskmate went home alone just now, looking rather discouraged. / My deskmate went home alone just now, discouraged.

三、句子翻译

1. Yao Ming, a basketball player, is the tallest person I have ever seen.

2. Time permitting, I’ll take you around my hometown.

3. She left the library with a smile on her face, contented.

4. His father works in an institute attached to Sun Yat-Sen University.

5. It is in the countryside that I spent my unforgettable childhood.

6. How grateful / thankful I am to my parents for bringing me up!

四、文段润色

One day after school, we went home, relaxed. There was an old lady, one of my neighbours, behind us. All of a sudden, out of control, a car nearly bumped into us. Lucky enough, we managed to avoid being hit. But unfortunately, the old lady was knocked down while crossing the street. On seeing what had happened, we came up to her in a hurry and found her bleeding badly. Without any hesitation,we sent for an ambulance and took her to the nearby hospital. In no time the doctors started operating on the old lady,with us waiting anxiously outside. To our joy, with the help of the doctors, the old lady was out of danger and able to walk normally a week later. Though in great pain, she never moaned(呻吟). How brave and determined the lady was! / What a brave and determined lady she was!

五、写作运用

Dear teachers and schoolmates,

On behalf of all the senior three students, I am honored to give a brief speech at the graduation ceremony.

To make our dreams come true, in the past three years, we have devoted ourselves to studying. Faced with difficulties and challenges, never shall we give up. By helping and learning from each other, we benefit a great deal. Meanwhile, it is our beloved teachers who always spare no effort to help us out. How grateful we are for their timely assistance!Never shall we forget their kindness. If convenient and possible, we will pay them visits after graduating from high school.

benefit形容词篇8

关键词: 商务英语 语境 英译汉

语境(context),即“语言环境”,是交际过程中的双方都相互明白的认知环境,即使说话产生含义的情况。一般词典给它下的定义是:说话的现实情境。英国著名人类学家Malinowski在研究语言时把“语境分为情景语境和文化语境两大类,前者指讲话人涉及的实际发生的事,即语言发生的实际环境,后者指讲话者所处的社会文化环境”。

本文所指的“情境语境”,就是外贸情景中对话所处的语言环境,属于一种国际商务氛围,具有浓厚的国际贸易气息,它涉及实际的外贸谈判细节。语境是千变万化的,在商务谈判时,要考虑说话者的文化背景、社会地位、价值观念、驾驭语言的能力和遣词造句的倾向等诸多因素。话语含义的产生离不开语境,翻译时,应注意说话者的话题、说话者的话语方式,以及说话者和听话者的社会关系和交际目的。本文着重探讨的是情景语境与商务英语对话汉译的技巧之间的关系。

以下就从商务英语对话中所使用的不同词类进行分析。

1.有些名词的翻译要注意从商业语境角度来选择正确的词义解释。例如下面一例是谈论关于保险的问题:

A:I see.Now,for this particular article,what risks do you usually cover?

B:We usually insure against All Risks for 110% of the invoice value.

(A:我明白了。那么我们这批货,你们通常投保什么险呢?)

(B: 我们通常按发票金额的110%投保一切险。)

原文中的“article”是一词多义词,有“文章”、“论文”、“冠词”、“商品”等词义,要译为何义,就得从当时的情景语境和上下文考虑,显然应译为“商品”,才符合原文所讲的内容。即使不懂得这里“article”的意思,也可以从上下文了解。

如双方谈及供货问题:

A:How about the supply position of your products?

B:We have a steady supply for most of them.

(A:你方产品供货情况怎么样?)

(B:多数产品货源稳定。)

回答者用“steady supply”来表示供货情况,译为“货源稳定”。这样翻译不仅能够清楚表示商品供货充足,而且译出了中文的特色,使语言描述更加到位、恰当。

另外还有许多名词性词组,如果能够译成成语和通俗用语,就更能体现汉语的特色了。特别是当展现产品的优点和特色时,经常会用到。比如“fast color”译为“永不褪色”,“fashionable patterns”译为“花色入时”,“sophisticated technology”译为“工艺精良”等。这些短语都是置于介绍产品语境下的最佳解释,让人感觉这些产品无可挑剔,这是卖方销售产品的技巧之一。

又如:“Quality is something we never neglect.We are not in business for‘a quick killing’.Good quality ensures continued sales.”这一句可译为:“我们一直十分重视质量,我们不做那种赶风头,捞一票的生意。商品质量好,才能不断有销路。”译文生动地说明了:只有质量好,销路才会好。这是商业最佳手段之一。而“赶风头,捞一票”形象地说明没有质量,就不可能有好的销路。若了解中文的俗语,并能应用自如,巧妙运用这样的解释,就能使读者立即鲜明地了解文中的确切意思。这就要求学生翻译时,把思维融入语言环境中,译出汉语的各种特色。

2.形容词在商务英语对话中经常出现,应用非常灵活。选择什么词义来解释十分关键。在汉译中要将形容词置于

当时的情境语境中,与句子其他成分联系起来翻译。

如谈话双方在谈及报价时:

A:Thank you.How long will this offer be open?

B:It’s valid for three days.

(A:谢谢。这个报价的有效期多长?)

(B:三天。)

A句中的“open”是个形容词,也是一词多义。除了字典上的解释外,还可根据不同的情景灵活解释,使其更加得体。从上下文和B中,“valid”译为“有效的”,可知“open”也应译为“有效的”。而译文中形容词“有效的”灵活转译为名词“有效期”,这样能使中文的句子更通顺易懂。此段对话是在谈报价问题,这是一笔生意的开始也是重要的有决定意义的细节。类似“open”的还有“good”、“firm”等词,这三个词都具有灵活性和通俗性。如:

A:The market at our end has become pretty competitive.In order to sell successfully there,your goods will have to be competitive in price as well.

B:You’ll find our prices very attractive.

(A:我地市场竞争很激烈,为了成功销售,你们的报价必须具有竞争力。)

(B:你们会发现我们的价格很有吸引力。)

以上对话谈论的还有价格问题,但也联系到市场销售,说明价格高低直接影响到市场竞争。“pretty”在这里是副词,也有多个词义,它用于修饰形容词“competitive”,从市场竞争角度,译为“激烈地”是最恰当不过了。而keen和sharp等形容词与“pretty”同义,用来修饰名词“competitive”,也译为竞争激烈。

3.动词的翻译也要从商务英语对话的语境中考虑,才能更加形象和贴切。如:

A:As we do business on the basis of mutual benefit,I suggest somewhere around 270 Francs per metric ton FOB Marsellies.

B:I’m sorry,the difference between our price and your counter offer is too wide.It’s impossible for us to entertain your counter offer,I’m afraid.

(A: 因为我们在互利的基础上做交易,我建议每公吨马赛船上交货价为270法郎左右。)

(B:很遗憾,我们的价格与你方还盘之间的差距太大,恐怕不可能接受你们的还盘。)

动词“entertain”是一词多义词,词义有“招待”、“娱乐”等,但此处不可能作此解释。从原文中可知,外贸情景对话中,在还盘阶段,对于价格,动词搭配常用“接受”与“不接受”,这是习惯自然的说法,而用其它词义就不通,这说明语境决定了词义的选择。另外,结构为“动词+介词”的动词短语也十分常见。例如:

A:To tell you frankly,a letter of credit with a bank,I have to pay a deposit.That’ll tie up my money and add to my cost.

B:Consult your bank and see if they will reduce the required deposit to a minimum.

(A:坦率地说,信用证会增加我方进口货的成本,要在银行开立信用证,我得付一笔押金。这样,那一部分资金就无法周转了,因此会增加成本。)

(B:你和开证行商量一下,是否把押金设法减少到最低限度。)

“tie up”这一动词词组,词义有“中断”、“联合”、“堵塞”等,但这些词义都无法解释此句中的“tie up”。从原文中可知与资金有关,而A由于资金周转不灵,无法选信用证为付款方式。因为这样就会束缚资金,在商界中俗称“压资金”。

4.介词在外贸英语对话中也不少见,让我们先看一例子,再进行分析:

A:It’s still too high.

B:Our quality is far beyond comparison.Besides,the market is advancing.Our goods can always find a good sale .

(A:还是太高。)

(B:我们的质量是无与伦比的。而且行市上涨,我们的货物销路一直很好。)

B中的“far beyond comparison”译为“无与伦比”,不仅译出其义,而且有很强的肯定意义。英文有它的表现手法,而中文会用有点夸张的手法修饰产品的优点,让人觉得无可挑剔。对话A中说价格过高,想减价。而B用无与伦比的质量水平抵住他的讨价还价,从B的下半句“the market is advancing.Our goods can always find a good sale.”得知描述质量是何等的好。所以用“无与伦比”再恰当不过了。类似这一情况的,中文中常见,因为它们形象突出、通俗生动。若读者反应敏捷,能及时得知对方的想法。

从上述举例论证中可知,在为外贸谈判作汉译时,无论是用名词、动词还是形容词、介词,都要看处在什么样的情景语境,并以此来选择恰当贴切的词义进行翻译。外贸情景对话汉译的主要目的是交流情况,沟通思想,表达情绪。为使汉译达到这种目的,就应想方设法使译文与原文达到最大程度的相近,起到等效翻译的作用。翻译时尽可能了解相关背景知识,参阅上下文来进行合乎逻辑的分析。另外说话人的情绪、感情和态度也关系到对话的汉译。由此可见,外贸英语对话的汉译在注意语境的同时也要注意这些要求,并渗入在译文中,从而正确理解和解释原文的意义。另一方面,我们还应进一步了解中国和英语国家各自的风俗习惯、价值观念等文化差异,只有这样,才能准确高效地进行翻译,更好地促进对外交流和国际贸易。

参考文献:

[1]王秀卿.等效翻译中的语境与语域取向[J].国外外语教学,2002,第3期.

[2]白文昌.语言文化差异与翻译交际[J].外语学刊,2002,第2期.

[3]韩红.全球化语境下外语教学中的跨文化意识[J].外语学刊,2002,第1期.

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